Paper of Aflatoxin with Nanis free essay sample

The active antifungal substance(s) were separated, semi purified and characterized as a protein substance. The semi purified substance inhibited spores formation, thinned the conidiophores and deformed both strigmata and conidial heads. Key words: Aspergillus niger, Streptomyces noursei, ochratoxin A. INTRODUCTION Growing mould may produce toxic secondary metabolites, such as mycotoxins. Among hundreds of fungal secondary metabolites are mycotoxins which include aflatoxins (AFL), deoxynivalenol, fumonisins (FB), ochratoxin A (OTA), and zearalenone. They are of major health concern for humans and domestic animals (Miller, 1994). Mycotoxins can enter into the human food chain directly through foods of plant origin and indirectly through foods of animal origin (Kovacs, 2004). Many types of food products in the markets have been reported to be contaminated with AFL or metabolites of AFL. These include tree nuts, peanuts, figs, melon seed, pumpkin seed, sesame seed, sunflower seed, lotus seed, coix seed, red pepper, white pepper, nutmeg, paprika, mixed spices, rice, corn, mixed cereals, chilies, and copra (Wilson, 2002). We will write a custom essay sample on Paper of Aflatoxin with Nanis or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page OTA has been found in many cereals, raisins, cocoa products, green coffee beans, wine, soybeans, grape juice, pork sausages (Pittet, 2001), spices, and herbs (Patel et al. , 1996). Ueno et al. (1991) were the first to report on ochratoxin A production by a black Aspergillus species, Aspergillus foetidus. This was later confirmed by Teren et al. (1996) and Magnoli et al. (2003). Abarca et al. (1997) reported that two strains of Aspergillus niger produced OTA, and confirmed in numerous studies (Abarca et al. , 2003; Suarez-Quiroz et al. 2004). Horie (1995) reported OTA in Aspergillus carbonarius, and confirmed by Heenan et al. (1998), Varga et al. (2000), Abarca et al. (2003) and Sage et al. (2004). Biological control means the use of living agents to control pests or plant pathogens and offers an important alternative to synthetic chemicals. The use of bacteria like Pseudomonas sp. and Bacillus sp. , have been investigated due to their properties to produce antifungal metabolites and protect plants from fungal infection (Siddiqui et al. , 2005; Nourozian et al. , 2006). Biological control is being increasingly considered by the scientific community as a reliable alternative to pesticide utilization in field and in post-harvest. This biological approach is highly desirable for controlling fungal growth on grapes, helping to reduce the amount of *Corresponding author. E-mail: [emailprotected] com Allam et al. 667 agrichemical residues in grapes, wine and related products (Cabras and Angioni, 2000). Actinomycetes are antibiotic producers that are capable of generating 75% of all known antibiotic products. Actinomycetes are a group of filamentous, Gram-positive bacteria (Williams et al. 1993). These organisms are aerobic, saprophytic, and mesophilic forms whose natural habitat is the soil. Several members of the Actinomycetes are known to be producers of important secondary metabolites, including antibiotics, herbicides, and growthpromoting substances (Connell, 2001). Over 55% of antibiotics have been isolated from the genus Streptomyces (Embley, 1994), and more than 400 species of the genus Streptomyces are mostly soil saprophytes. The gram-positive bacterium S. noursei ATCC 11455 produces a complex mixture of polyene macrolides generally termed nystatins (antifungal agent). The main objective of this study is to prevent or inhibit the growth of ochratoxin producing A. niger using biological method. In this connection, the potential effect of Actinomycete antagonistic to the test organism was focused. MATERIALS AND METHODS Source of used bacteria True and lactic acid bacteria (LAB) used in this study were obtained from Microbiology unit, Bacteriology Laboratory, Faculty of Science, Tanta University. The used Actinomycetes were isolated from soil samples collected from different localities in Egypt, namely Tanta, El-Mansoura, Kafr El-Zayat and El-Mehala El-Kobra. Soil samples were taken after the removal of about 5 cm of the surface, and then kept in clean plastic bags. Over the surface of solidified starch nitrate agar plates, 0. 2 ml samples of the soil dilution were spread out with a sterilized glass rod. The plates were then incubated at 28  ± 2 °C for 7 days. Biological control Different bacterial and Actinomycete isolates were grown in their corresponding suitable liquid media (Nutrient Broth for true bacteria, de Man, Rogosa and Sharpe (MRS) for LAB and starch nitrate for Actinomycetes) for 24 h and 7 days, respectively. Aliquots (100 ? l) of each cell free extract which was previously extracted by milling the cells in sterile saline were applied on the holes, and agar diffusion method was applied. After incubation for 5 days, the diameters of inhibition zones were measured. Characterizations of Actinomycete isolate number 3 For complete identification of the most fungal and ochratoxin antagonistic isolate, several physical, morphological and biochemical properties were examined. The criteria described in keys of identification (Kuster, 1972; Nonomura, 1974; Szabo et al. , 1975; Szabo and Csortos, 1975) were followed. Bergeys Manual of Systematic Bacteriology (Williams et al. , 1989) and Bergeys Manual of Systematic Bacteriology (Holt et al. , 1994) were followed for identification. These fall into the following classes: Microscopic characterization Light and scanning electron microscopes in Electron Microscope Unit, Tanta University (model JEOL, JSM-5200 LV) were used for the characterization of Actinomycetes. Determination of diaminopimelic acid (DAP)-isomer Diaminopimelic acid isomer was determined according to the method of Becker (1964) after modifications as follows: The Actinomycete isolate 3 was grown under shake culture conditions at 28 °C in nutrient yeast extract broth and the cells were collected after the achievement of a maximal growth 1 mg of the dried bacterial cells were hydrolyzed with 1 ml 6 N HCl in a sealed Pyrex tube held at 100 °C for 18 h. After cooling, the sample was filtered through Whatman no. 1 filter paper, which was then washed with 1 ml water. The filtrate was dried two or three consecutive times on a rotary evaporator under reduced pressure at 40 °C to remove most of the HCl. The residue was taken up in 0. 3 ml water and a volume of 5 ? l was then spotted on a thin layer macrocrystalline cellulose plate (Art 5577 Dc- Plastikfolien cellulose 20 ? 20 cm, layer thickness 0. 1 mm. Merck). For separation of amino acids, the following solvent mixture was used: Methanol-water- 10 N HCl – Pyridine (80: 17. 5: 2. 5: 10, by volume). Amino acids were detected by spraying with acetonic ninhydrin (0. 1, w/v), followed by heating for 2 min at 100 °C. Diaminopimelic acid (DAP) spots were olive- green fading to yellow, whereas the other amine acids exhibited purple spots. Physical and nutritional factors influencing the growth and antifungal activity of Streptomyces sp. To find out the best growth and antifungal activity of the best antagonistic organism, we study the effect of different media, pH, temperature, carbon and nitrogen sources. Partial purification of antifungal substance(s) produced by experimental Actinomycete isolate Fractionation by salting out with ammonium sulfate A modified technique of Jakoby (1971) was used. Different concentrations of ammonium sulfate (25, 50, 75 and 90%, (w/v)) were investigated. The supernatant – ammonium sulfate mixture was kept for 30 min at 4 °C before being separated by centrifugation. The precipitate was dialyzed in a dialysis bag in buffer in a refrigerator at 4 °C over night until the protein precipitate inside the bag became free from excess sulfate. Protein analysis Native electrophoresis The methods described by Stegemann et al. (1985) were applied as follow: Gel electrophoresis: Dissociating polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) was carried out according to a protocol proposed by Laemmli (1970). Subunit molecular weight estimation by SDS-PAGE: The method of Weber and Osborne (1969) was used to determine the apparent (subunit) molecular weight of proteins dissolved or extracted in the presence of sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS). Mode of action of antifungal substance: Different concentrations (0. 10, 0. 25 and 0. 50%) of the active protein extracted from 668 Afr. J. Biotechnol. Table 1. Antifungal activity of cell free extract of different microorganisms against A. niger. Isolate number Actinomycetes 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 True bacteria 8 9 10 Bacillus pumilus Lactic acid bacteria 11 12 13 Lactobacillus plantarum Lactobacillus acidophilus Lactobacillus bulgaricus Diameter of inhibition zone (mm) 25. 00 20. 00 33. 00 0. 00 0. 00 16. 00 0. 00 bacterial isolates were represented by 4 isolates of true bacteria, 6 isolates of lactic acid bacteria and 7 isolates of Actinomycete are shown in Table 1. Among different bacteria, isolate 3 of Actinomycete (Photo 1) was the best bacterial isolate that revealed the highest antifungal activity against A. niger. Factors influencing growth and antifungal activity of isolate 3 Figures 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 illustrate the effect of different conditions on growth of isolate no 3. The optimum growth was on starch nitrate medium containing starch as carbon source and potassium nitrate as nitrogen source, at 30 °C, pH 7. Characterization and identification of Actinomycete isolate no 3 Out of the 7 isolates of Actinomycetes, organism no 3 was the most active organism that inhibited the growth of ochratoxin A producing A. niger. It was subjected to further studies in order to be characterized and identified. Light microscopic examination showed the shape of the branches arranged in whorls and spiral spore chain (Photo 2). Scanning electron microscope (Photo 3) showed the spiny spore surface. The data obtained from the previous characterization program (Table 2) suggesting that isolate no 3 belong to genus Streptomyces as indicated by the colour of its aerial mycelia and the presence of LL-DAP in the cell wall, spore form, physiological and biochemical characteristics. On the basis of the pervious characters, this isolate showed to be similar to S. noursei. Thus, it could be concluded that the Actinomycete isolate no 3 is suggestive of being related to S. noursei and thus could be given the name S. noursei. Extraction and semi-purification of the antifungal substance Here, a study on the purification of antifungal substance extracted from the culture broth of the tested S. noursei was carried out. Fractionation by salting out with ammonium sulphate Ammonium sulphate was the best precipitant agent used to separate the antifungal substance from S. noursei and showed the highest antifungal activity. Characterization and antifungal substance semi-purification of the . 00 0. 00 0. 00 15. 00 0. 00 23 0. 00 28 15 25 Actinomycete isolate 3 were incubated with A. niger on Czapexs Dox media. Changes in morphology of fungi were photographed under Scanning electron microscope (model JEOL, JSM-5200 LV) in Electron Microscope Unit, Tanta University. Statistical analysis One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was carried out. Separation between different means was carried out according to Duncan multiple range test (LSR) and the simple linear correlation analysis (r) were carried out according to SAS (1985) software for windows version (6. 2). All experiments and analytical determinations were replicated at least three times. RESULTS Control by antagonistic microorganisms Effect of different bacteria on ochratoxin producing A. niger the growth of In this experiment, different types of bacteria were tested to control the growth of the common fungal producer of ochratoxin (A. niger) which was p reviously isolated and identified from herbs and medicinal plants in Egypt. The well diffusion method was used to determine the antifungal activity of different bacterial isolate. The different The antifungal substance was dialysized by dialysis bag Allam et al. 669 Photo 1. Antifungal activity of the selected Actinomycete isolate 3 on the growth of the common producer of ochratoxin (A. niger), (a) control, (b) supernatant of isolate 3. to remove the excess of ammonium sulphate. Gel electrophoresis of protein polyacrylamide gel and SDS-PAGE The obtained antifungal substance was by native performed to native polyacrylamide gel and SDS-PAGE to illustrate the subunits structure to confirm the degree of purity. In the case of native polyacrylamide gel, it was presented as one thick band (Photo 4). The final eluted proteins were subjected to SDS-PAGE according to the method of Laemmli (1970). Four bands were observed in the sample on SDS-PAGE (Photo 5). The molecular weights 670 Afr. J. Biotechnol. 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 Diameter of inhibition zone (mm) Dry weight (g/L) 0 Figure 1. Effect of different media on the growth and antifungal activity of isolate no 3. 60 50 40 30 Dry weight (g/L) 20 10 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 Diameter of inhibition zone (mm) Temperature  °C Figure 2. Effect of different temperatures on the growth and antifungal activity of isolate no 3. of the protein subunits were approximately 12, 35, 41 and 150 kDa. It means that the active substance is a group of four compounds, collected with each other to give their antifungal activity. Mode of action of the antifungal substance Different concentrations of the antifungal substance were mixed with the growth media of fungus A. niger to give the concentrations; 0. 10, 0. 5 and 0. 50%, and incubated for 5 days to show the mode of action of this substance on the growth of A. niger. The result (Photo 6, 7 and 8) illustrated the inhibition of spores formation, thinning of conidiophores and deformation of both strigmata and conidia by increasing the concentration of the semi purified antifungal substance produced by S. noursei. DISCUSSION This study aimed to control contamination of ochratoxin A Allam et al. 671 60. 00 50. 00 40. 00 Dry weight (g/L) Dry weight (g/l) 30. 00 20. 00 10. 00 . 00 Diameter of inhibition zone (mm) 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 pH Figure 3. Effect of different pH values on the growth and antifungal activity of isolate 3. 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 Diameter of inhibition zone (mm) Dry weight (g/L) 0 Figure 4. Effect of different carbon sources on the growth and antifungal activity of isolate 3. 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Diameter of inhibition zone (mm) Dry weight (g/L) Figure 5. Effect of different nitrogen sources on the growth and antifungal activity of isolate 3. 672 Afr. J. Biotechnol. Photo 2. Light micrograph of isolate (3) grown on different starch nitrate media for 7 days at 30 °C at magnifications; (a) x40, (b) x25 and (c) x100. producing A. niger in common medicinal and herbal plants that used in Egypt by using biocontrol organism. Allam et al. (2008) detected the fungal contamination of 22 investigated samples of herbal and medicinal plants in Egypt. A total of 7 species of fungi belonged to 5 genera were isolated and identified as Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium, Botrytis and Cladosporium. The greater number of species was related to the genus Aspergillus, including A. iger, A. flavus and A. terreus and the formers were the most dominant and the responsible one for ochratoxin A production was A. niger. In the present study, biological control of ochratoxin A producing A. niger using antagonist bacteria and Actinomycetes was applied through screening program using liquid cultures. The program showed that Actinomycete isolate no 3 was the most potent organism whi ch gave the best antifungal activity. Subsequently, it was subjected to further studies in order to be characterized and identified. It was found that the selected isolate can grow well on starch nitrate medium, it is aerobic, spore forming, Gram positive, isolated from soil, spore mass was gray. The aerial mycelium with long straight filaments bearing at more or less regular spindles, the vegetative mycelium produced branched mycelium with the presence of LL-DAP in cell wall. All of the previous characters confirmed that the selected isolate belong to the genus Streptomyces. Microscopic examination showed spiny spore surface and spiral spore chain. The growth on carbon and nitrogen source in synthetic media and other characters are useful in species determination. Following the international keys of Kuster (1972), Nonomura (1974), Szabo et al. (1975) and Szabo and Csotros (1975), the survey of literatures on the description of Streptomyces species was done with these keys. In addition, Williams et al. (1989) and Holt et al. (1994) indicated that this isolate belongs to S. noursei and thus the name S. noursei is given. The polyene macrolide antibiotic nystatin produced by S. oursei is an important antifungal agent. The nystatin molecule contains a polyketide moiety represented by a 38-membered macrolactone ring to which the deoxysugar Allam et al. 673 Photo 3. Photography of scanning electron microscope showing the spore surface of isolate (3) at magnifications; (a) x7500 (b) x20000. mycosamine is attached. Molecular cloning and characterization of the genes governing the nystatin biosynthesis is of considerable interest because this information can be used for the generation of new antifungal antibiotics (Brautaset et al. 2000). The present results showed the promotion or inhibition of biological control organism to inhibit the fungal growth as well as the presence of ochratoxin on the contaminated herbs may be related to the different chemical contents which are present in each type of herbs. This hypothesis led to an examination of the effect of different factors which may be present in the surround environ- ment of medicinal and food herbs on the growth of S. noursei and its antifungal acti vity. Fractional precipitation of crude antifungal substance produced by S. oursei was performed by using different concentrations of ammonium sulphate. Results obtained showed that the ammonium sulphate at concentration 50% was the most suitable to give the highest antifungal activity. The use of ammonium sulphate for protein extraction was reported by Chitte and Dey (2000) on Streptomyces megasporus, Patcharaporn et al. (2008) on Shizophyllum commune BL23, Cheng et al. (2006) on B. subtilis DC33 and Wang et al. (2007) on B. subtilis LD-8547. 674 Afr. J. Biotechnol. Table 2. Characterization and identification of isolate.

Christmas Card Quotes

Christmas Card Quotes This Christmas, add a special touch to your Christmas cards with these wonderful Christmas card quotes. Write the most appropriate quote on it, and your greeting card will stand out in a pile of other Christmas cards. Secular Quotes for Christmas Cards Charles Schulz  Christmas is doing a little something extra for someone. Helen Steiner Rice Peace on earth will come to stay,When we live Christmas every day.Thomas TusserAt Christmas play and make good cheer, for Christmas comes but once a year.Winston ChurchillWe make a living by what we get but we make a life by what we give. Garrison KeillorA lovely thing about Christmas is that its compulsory, like a thunderstorm, and we all go through it together.Bess Streeter Aldrich Christmas Eve  was a night of song that wrapped itself about you like a shawl. But it warmed more than your body. It warmed your heart... filled it, too, with a melody that would last forever.John Greenleaf WhittierA little smile, a word of cheer, A bit of love from someone near, A little gift from one held dear, Best wishes for the coming year†¦ These make a  Merry Christmas! Charles DickensI will honor Christmas in my heart, and try to keep it all the year. John Greenleaf WhittierSomehow, not only for ChristmasBut all the long year through,The joy that you give to othersIs the joy that comes back to you. Bob HopeMy idea of Christmas, whether old-fashioned or modern, is very simple: loving others. Come to think of it, why do we have to wait for Christmas to do that? Norman Vincent PealeChristmas waves a magic wand over this world, and behold, everything is softer and more beautiful.Religious Quotes for Christmas Cards George Mathew AdamsLet us remember that the Christmas heart is a giving heart, a wide open heart that thinks of others first. The birth of the baby Jesus stands as the most significant event in all history because it has meant the pouring into a sick world of the healing medicine of love which has transformed all manner of hearts for almost two thousand years. Underneath all the bulging bundles is this beating Christmas heart.Grace Noll CrowellWhatever else be lost among the years, Let us keep Christmas still a shining thing: Whatever doubts assail us, or what fears, Let us hold close one day, remembering its poignant meaning for the hearts of men. Let us get back our childlike faith again.Helen Steiner RiceBless us Lord, this Christmas, with quietness of mind; Teach us to be patient and always to be kind. Eva K. LogueA Christmas candle is a lovely thing; It makes no noise at all, But softly gives itself away; While quite unselfish, it grows small. Charles DickensFor it is good to be children sometimes, and never better than at Christmas, when its mighty Founder was a child Himself. Luke, 2:14Glory to God in the highest, and on earth peace, good will toward men.

Analytical Essay on To Kill a Mockingbird

Analytical Essay on To Kill a Mockingbird Analytical Essay on To Kill a Mockingbird The story To Kill a Mockingbird written by Harper Lee won the Pulitzer Prize, and in a short time has become a classic and is used in schools in the USA. The plot and inspiration of the characters are drawn from her family, neighbors and an event that took place in Alabama in 1936. The novel tackles the issues or rape and racism, but she filled it with warmth and humor as well. The plot involves Tom who is accused of raping a white girl. The community is torn apart and Atticus decides to defend him. Despite the evidence that clears him, Tom is found guilty. The primary theme is that of racial injustice and the loss of innocence, with the lesser themes of class courage compassion and gender in the American deep south. In particular, there are three themes: Innocence and Experience There are three main children in the story who react to the harsh reality of the trial. All lose their innocence. Dill panics and is filled with fear, Jem grows cynical and disillusioned with the so-called Justice system. Scout reacts more positively, hoping for social change. The main lesson the children learn is that in small towns people who do not conform become marginalized. They also see what adults do not about the loneliness and rejection people like Boo, Dolpus and Tom experience. Scout learns that children are already seen as acceptable or not based on circumstances they cannot control from Aunt Alexandra condemnations and judgments about the Radleys, Cunninghams and others. Children play a main role in Harper Lees novel and her sympathies are with lie with the  good-natured ones. We learn about â€Å"dignity in the midst of squalor† The Enmity and Tension The town is seething with mistrust, amnesty and hate. Prejudice further divides the town by race and class and a price is paid. Racial prejudice is the main focus but class differences and heredity and inherited social status unfairly dictates how people are treated. In this community, economic hardship plays a great part. It is in the great Depression and in extreme conditions Harper shows that people react differently, some are generous and fair, while others are mean and fearful. In this town the poor white farmers have been â€Å"hit the hardest, while businessmen are struggling against bankruptcy. In the middle of it, all are innocents like Tom and Boo. Inequality Harper Lee makes her case for social equality to be practiced as the law provides, and that equal right should be extended to all. She exposes the snobbery and prejudice that mars communities everywhere. She goes far to show the logic behind how things are, and exposes how they ought to be. Education is a clear route to equality in Lees world. It will guarantee equality. All her characters who are educated are also decent and treat others well, such as Scout, Atticus and Miss Maudie. Bob, Mayella and Aunt Alexandra are uneducated, mistrustful and suspicious. It is a tragic situation, moved and manipulated by deep prejudices, deep-rooted suspicion and mistrust, generational class traditions and fearful men. An innocent man is condemned not because of what he did, but because of the powerful forces of racism and inequality. A powerful and effective book. Tips on writing a good analytical essay on this topic: An analytical essay mostly explores another piece of writing, such as a book. If you are writing about a work of fiction, your focus can be one the characters, or a sentence that is central to the work. Write a thesis statement in a sentence or two. You may add background of your topic as well in introduction. Make an outline with introduction, at least three body paragraphs, and a conclusion. Your paragraphs need a topic sentence, and something from the book text. Your personal reactions can be noted. Your conclusion should bring your thesis and paragraphs together. Our custom essay writing service is designed to help students with writing analytical essays on any topics. Just order a custom paper at our website online.

Analytical Essay on To Kill a Mockingbird

Analytical Essay on To Kill a Mockingbird Analytical Essay on To Kill a Mockingbird The story To Kill a Mockingbird written by Harper Lee won the Pulitzer Prize, and in a short time has become a classic and is used in schools in the USA. The plot and inspiration of the characters are drawn from her family, neighbors and an event that took place in Alabama in 1936. The novel tackles the issues or rape and racism, but she filled it with warmth and humor as well. The plot involves Tom who is accused of raping a white girl. The community is torn apart and Atticus decides to defend him. Despite the evidence that clears him, Tom is found guilty. The primary theme is that of racial injustice and the loss of innocence, with the lesser themes of class courage compassion and gender in the American deep south. In particular, there are three themes: Innocence and Experience There are three main children in the story who react to the harsh reality of the trial. All lose their innocence. Dill panics and is filled with fear, Jem grows cynical and disillusioned with the so-called Justice system. Scout reacts more positively, hoping for social change. The main lesson the children learn is that in small towns people who do not conform become marginalized. They also see what adults do not about the loneliness and rejection people like Boo, Dolpus and Tom experience. Scout learns that children are already seen as acceptable or not based on circumstances they cannot control from Aunt Alexandra condemnations and judgments about the Radleys, Cunninghams and others. Children play a main role in Harper Lees novel and her sympathies are with lie with the  good-natured ones. We learn about â€Å"dignity in the midst of squalor† The Enmity and Tension The town is seething with mistrust, amnesty and hate. Prejudice further divides the town by race and class and a price is paid. Racial prejudice is the main focus but class differences and heredity and inherited social status unfairly dictates how people are treated. In this community, economic hardship plays a great part. It is in the great Depression and in extreme conditions Harper shows that people react differently, some are generous and fair, while others are mean and fearful. In this town the poor white farmers have been â€Å"hit the hardest, while businessmen are struggling against bankruptcy. In the middle of it, all are innocents like Tom and Boo. Inequality Harper Lee makes her case for social equality to be practiced as the law provides, and that equal right should be extended to all. She exposes the snobbery and prejudice that mars communities everywhere. She goes far to show the logic behind how things are, and exposes how they ought to be. Education is a clear route to equality in Lees world. It will guarantee equality. All her characters who are educated are also decent and treat others well, such as Scout, Atticus and Miss Maudie. Bob, Mayella and Aunt Alexandra are uneducated, mistrustful and suspicious. It is a tragic situation, moved and manipulated by deep prejudices, deep-rooted suspicion and mistrust, generational class traditions and fearful men. An innocent man is condemned not because of what he did, but because of the powerful forces of racism and inequality. A powerful and effective book. Tips on writing a good analytical essay on this topic: An analytical essay mostly explores another piece of writing, such as a book. If you are writing about a work of fiction, your focus can be one the characters, or a sentence that is central to the work. Write a thesis statement in a sentence or two. You may add background of your topic as well in introduction. Make an outline with introduction, at least three body paragraphs, and a conclusion. Your paragraphs need a topic sentence, and something from the book text. Your personal reactions can be noted. Your conclusion should bring your thesis and paragraphs together. Our custom essay writing service is designed to help students with writing analytical essays on any topics. Just order a custom paper at our website online.

Analytical Essay on To Kill a Mockingbird

Analytical Essay on To Kill a Mockingbird Analytical Essay on To Kill a Mockingbird The story To Kill a Mockingbird written by Harper Lee won the Pulitzer Prize, and in a short time has become a classic and is used in schools in the USA. The plot and inspiration of the characters are drawn from her family, neighbors and an event that took place in Alabama in 1936. The novel tackles the issues or rape and racism, but she filled it with warmth and humor as well. The plot involves Tom who is accused of raping a white girl. The community is torn apart and Atticus decides to defend him. Despite the evidence that clears him, Tom is found guilty. The primary theme is that of racial injustice and the loss of innocence, with the lesser themes of class courage compassion and gender in the American deep south. In particular, there are three themes: Innocence and Experience There are three main children in the story who react to the harsh reality of the trial. All lose their innocence. Dill panics and is filled with fear, Jem grows cynical and disillusioned with the so-called Justice system. Scout reacts more positively, hoping for social change. The main lesson the children learn is that in small towns people who do not conform become marginalized. They also see what adults do not about the loneliness and rejection people like Boo, Dolpus and Tom experience. Scout learns that children are already seen as acceptable or not based on circumstances they cannot control from Aunt Alexandra condemnations and judgments about the Radleys, Cunninghams and others. Children play a main role in Harper Lees novel and her sympathies are with lie with the  good-natured ones. We learn about â€Å"dignity in the midst of squalor† The Enmity and Tension The town is seething with mistrust, amnesty and hate. Prejudice further divides the town by race and class and a price is paid. Racial prejudice is the main focus but class differences and heredity and inherited social status unfairly dictates how people are treated. In this community, economic hardship plays a great part. It is in the great Depression and in extreme conditions Harper shows that people react differently, some are generous and fair, while others are mean and fearful. In this town the poor white farmers have been â€Å"hit the hardest, while businessmen are struggling against bankruptcy. In the middle of it, all are innocents like Tom and Boo. Inequality Harper Lee makes her case for social equality to be practiced as the law provides, and that equal right should be extended to all. She exposes the snobbery and prejudice that mars communities everywhere. She goes far to show the logic behind how things are, and exposes how they ought to be. Education is a clear route to equality in Lees world. It will guarantee equality. All her characters who are educated are also decent and treat others well, such as Scout, Atticus and Miss Maudie. Bob, Mayella and Aunt Alexandra are uneducated, mistrustful and suspicious. It is a tragic situation, moved and manipulated by deep prejudices, deep-rooted suspicion and mistrust, generational class traditions and fearful men. An innocent man is condemned not because of what he did, but because of the powerful forces of racism and inequality. A powerful and effective book. Tips on writing a good analytical essay on this topic: An analytical essay mostly explores another piece of writing, such as a book. If you are writing about a work of fiction, your focus can be one the characters, or a sentence that is central to the work. Write a thesis statement in a sentence or two. You may add background of your topic as well in introduction. Make an outline with introduction, at least three body paragraphs, and a conclusion. Your paragraphs need a topic sentence, and something from the book text. Your personal reactions can be noted. Your conclusion should bring your thesis and paragraphs together. Our custom essay writing service is designed to help students with writing analytical essays on any topics. Just order a custom paper at our website online.

How do American Perceptions of an Ideal Hero Relate to our Ideas of Essay

How do American Perceptions of an Ideal Hero Relate to our Ideas of Masculinity, and How is This American Vision of Masculinity - Essay Example Today, they come to life in many high-calibrated movie films. However, they do not just come alive in these movie films, but they are perfect portrayal of the American way of viewing masculinity. Such vision of masculinity can also be viewed within the cowboy culture. This paper tries to discuss how American perceptions of an ideal hero relate to our common ideas of masculinity, and how this vision is portrayed in the fiction â€Å"Cowboy† written by Thomas McGuane. Cowboy The cowboy culture is known for being able to outlaw violence, possess physical prowess, and self-made success (Flood 114). These all reveal the classic views of American masculinity which correspondingly are depicted in movie films that try to emphasize the supernatural powers of superheroes. In fact, the main themes of these films significantly show substantial level of information on the main characters’ way of outlawing violence, and obtaining physical prowess and self-made success. The violence f or instance is a perfect portrayal of an evil act and overcoming it is such a good gesture which is highly commendable by the society. Outlawing of violence requires substantial amount of power, energy and something to that effect in the same way with obtaining physical prowess and self-made success. All these characteristics are viewed to be a â€Å"must possess† by men in a society where there is strong importance given to competitiveness which is one of the indicators of masculinity based on Hofstede’s theory of cultural dimension. This scenario is perfectly portrayed in the fiction â€Å"Cowboy† by Thomas McGuane. â€Å"†¦and they had it positioned by the door of the barn so it’d be convenient for the hired man to stagger out at all hours and fight breech births and scours and any other disorder sent us by cow gods. We had some doozies. One heifer got pregnant and her calf was near as big as she was. Had to reach in with a saw and take it out in pieces† (McGuane 2). This entirely depicts the picture of how the cowboys invest their time in trying to save life and stand on their ground when a need for their strength and time arises. When push comes to shove, they are to maximize their strength, come up with initiative and understand that everything counts within a specified time. This is one of the common scenarios found in ranches by an animal herder such as the cowboys in the story. They also are normally not distracted by various mishaps in life, rather their ultimate vision is about moving on. â€Å"Only mishap was when the manure spreader threw a rock and knocked me senseless and I drove the rig into an irrigation ditch. The old sumbitch never said a word but chained up and pulled us out with his Ford† (2). This scene in the story depicts the remarkable attitude possessed by the old lady’s brother, a cowboy, towards moving on. Without a word, he did what he believed is appropriate and no amount of wo rds for blames was uttered. It depicts how man is expected to prove himself in the midst of situations where what is only required is his physical strength and strong conviction to face certain situation in order to move on. There was no turning back, but the ultimate way is to move forward, go find for solution, look out for the best move and implement it, â€Å"†¦never said a word

Astronomy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 4

Astronomy - Essay Example If earth’s internal activities are related to solar energy, then other planets also should have such internal activities. â€Å"The earth grew from the accumulation of planetismals (meteorites and asteroids), over a period of 1-200 million years about 4.3 to about 4.5 billion years ago. All of the geological activity on the earth today is driven from this initial source of heat at the earths formation, aided and abetted by continued radioactive decay of elements in the earths interior.† (The Heat History of Earth) The construction of earth is not homogeneous and different parts of earth have different types of layers and even the materials are different at different locations on earth. For example the soil structure of India and that of America are entirely different. Earth is blessed with so many radioactive elements like Uranium, Radium, and Plutonium which are decaying continuously liberating huge amount of energy. More over these elements are not distributed uniformly on earth’s surface and even then earth’s internal activities are distributed evenly everywhere. So we can concl ude that the internal activity of earth is not because of radioactive decay of elements alone, but it was due to the initial source of heat at the earth’s formation also. It is an accepted fact that earth’s internal activity has risen in the recent past. It is evident from the increased number of earth quakes, and volcano eruption. Once the earth’s internal activities finished, there will be no more earth quakes, tidal waves and volcano eruption and the earth becomes cooled to alarming levels so that its biological activities will also be ended along with the geological activities. â€Å"There is much evidence that indicates geological vitality of a planet which has played a fundamental role in the development and evolution of life.† (Frias) It is evident from the fact that no other